مجلة الجامعة الإسلامية للعلوم التطبيقية

Review on Diatomite for Sustainable Technology: Recent Advances in Functionalization, Composite Development, and Multi-Scale Applications

Hossameldin Galal Mohamed Bakr


الكلمات مفتاحية: Diatomite; surface functionalization; diatomite-based composites; environmental remediation; energy storage materials; biomedical applications; sustainable materials.

التخصص العام: Science

التخصص الدقيق: Material Science

https://doi.org/10.63070/jesc.2025.030; Received 30 September 2025; Revised 15 October 2025; Accepted 27 November 2025. Available online 01 December 2025.
DownloadPDF
الملخص

Diatomaceous earth (DE), or diatomite, constitutes the fossilized silica frustules of diatoms. Historically utilized as an industrial absorbent and filtration medium, it has recently garnered significant attention as an advanced material in nanotechnology and engineering. This transition is driven by its inherent physicochemical properties, which include a hierarchically porous architecture, high specific surface area, low density, and chemical stability, collectively rendering it an effective natural micro- and nano-structured scaffold. This review provides a systematic examination of the seminal scientific and engineering progress in diatomite research from 2014 to 2025. The analysis is structured around three primary themes: (1) the advancement of sophisticated chemical, physical, and biological strategies for surface activation and functionalization; (2) the rational design and fabrication of hybrid diatomite-based composites incorporating polymeric, metallic, metal oxide, and carbonaceous phases; and (3) the diversification of its application spectrum into domains including catalysis, energy storage (e.g., Li-ion batteries, supercapacitors), construction, environmental remediation, biomedical engineering (e.g., drug delivery, biosensing), and thermal/acoustic management. This work critically evaluates key performance indicators, synthesizes prevalent characterization techniques, and incorporates sustainability analyses from a life-cycle perspective. 

مراجع

[1]       Y. Li, J. He, X. Zhang, and X. Deng, "The draft genome of Nitzschia closterium f. minutissima and transcriptome analysis reveals novel insights into diatom biosilicification," BMC genomics, vol. 25, no. 1, p. 560, 2024.

[2]       S. Liao, H. Xu, L. Wu, Z. Zhao, and K. Ma, "Strength formation mechanism and microstructural evolution of low-grade diatomite-based cementitious materials," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 431, p. 136588, 2024.

[3]       H. Bakr, "Diatomite: its characterization, modifications and applications," Asian journal of materials science, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 121-136, 2010.

[4]       Y. Wang, Z. Shang, W. Lan, S. Liang, X. Kang, and Z. Hu, "Optimization of nutrient removal performance of magnesia-containing constructed wetlands: a microcosm study," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 28, no. 41, pp. 58583-58591, 2021.

[5]       M. Z. Nawaz, M. Bilal, A. Tariq, H. M. Iqbal, H. A. Alghamdi, and H. Cheng, "Bio-purification of sugar industry wastewater and production of high-value industrial products with a zero-waste concept," Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, vol. 61, no. 21, pp. 3537-3554, 2021.

[6]       S. Shewatatek, G. Gonfa, S. M. Hailegiorgis, and B. Tessema, "Adsorptive Removal of Lead Ions from Wastewater Using Modified Diatomite," Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, p. 100900, 2025.

[7]       Z. Ren et al., "The preparation and characterization of calcined diatomite with high adsorption properties by CaO hydrothermal activation," Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, vol. 636, p. 128134, 2022.

[8]       A. A. Reka et al., "Diatomaceous Earth: Characterization, thermal modification, and application," Open chemistry, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 451-461, 2021.

[9]       G. Lemessa, Y. Chebude, and E. Alemayehu, "Adsorptive removal of Cr (VI) from wastewater using magnetite–diatomite nanocomposite," AQUA—Water Infrastructure, Ecosystems and Society, vol. 72, no. 12, pp. 2239-2261, 2023.

[10]     M. Yeganeh, M. Omidi, H. Mortazavi, A. Etemad, M. Rostami, and M. Shafiei, "Enhancement routes of corrosion resistance in the steel reinforced concrete by using nanomaterials," Smart Nanoconcretes and Cement-Based Materials, pp. 583-599, 2020.

[11]     P. Aggrey et al., "On the diatomite-based nanostructure-preserving material synthesis for energy applications," RSC advances, vol. 11, no. 51, pp. 31884-31922, 2021.

[12]     M. A. Al-Ghouti and D. A. Da'ana, "Guidelines for the use and interpretation of adsorption isotherm models: A review," Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 393, p. 122383, 2020.

[13]     X. Song et al., "Application of diatomite for gallic acid removal from molasses wastewater," Science of the Total Environment, vol. 765, pp. 142711 %@ 0048-9697, 2021.

[14]     H. Lim et al., "Recent progress in diatom biosilica: A natural nanoporous silica material as sustained release carrier," Pharmaceutics, vol. 15, no. 10, p. 2434, 2023.

[15]     J. Zhou, L. Cheng, Z. Ma, X. Weng, and J. Gao, "Integrated nanostructures of TiO2/g-C3N4/diatomite based on low-grade diatomite as efficient catalyst for photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue: performance and mechanism," Catalysts, vol. 13, no. 5, p. 796, 2023.

[16]     Z. Talha et al., "Al-Rich ordered mesoporous silica SBA-15 materials: synthesis, surface characterization and acid properties," Catalysis Letters, vol. 147, no. 8, pp. 2116-2126, 2017.

[17]     B. Galzerano et al., "Effect of carbonaceous fillers on adsorption behavior of multifunctional diatomite-based foams for wastewater treatment," Chemosphere, vol. 281, p. 130999, 2021.

[18]     R. Hichem and S. Bouhelal, "Effect of the chemical modification of diatomite/isotactic polypropylene composite on the rheological, morphological and mechanical properties," Advanced Materials Research, vol. 1177, pp. 121-136, 2023.

[19]     K. Khezri and Y. Fazli, "A study on the kinetics and thermal properties of polystyrene/diatomite nanocomposites prepared via in situ ATRP," Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 180-197, 2020.

[20]     M. Da?, "Obtaining Diatomite Reinforced Epoxy Composite and Determination of Its Thermophysical Properties," Journal of the Turkish Chemical Society Section B: Chemical Engineering, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 9-16, 2023.

[21]     A. Dubicki, M. Panto?, and K. J. Kurzyd?owski, "Effect of Fabrication Route on the Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Composites with Diatom Earth (DE)," Polymers, vol. 17, no. 16, p. 2208, 2025.

[22]     Z. T. Yao et al., "A comprehensive review on the applications of coal fly ash," Earth-science reviews, vol. 141, pp. 105-121, 2015.

[23]     E. De Tommasi and A. C. De Luca, "Diatom biosilica in plasmonics: applications in sensing, diagnostics and therapeutics," Biomedical Optics Express, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 3080-3101, 2022.

[24]     C. Rubino et al., "Tailoring porosity and acoustic properties in bi-layered diatomite-based foams through multiscale structural approach," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 430, p. 136480, 2024.

[25]     J. Li, X. Liu, S. Ren, C. Hua, and W. Liu, "Preparing visible photocatalytic paper with improved catalytic activity by adding N-TiO?/diatomite@ regenerated cellulose composite filler," 2021.

[26]     A. J. O. Coba, S. Brice?o, K. Vizuete, A. Debut, and G. Gonz?lez, "Diatomite with TiO2 nanoparticles for the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue," Carbon Trends, vol. 19, pp. 100488 %@ 2667-0569, 2025.

[27]     T. Y. Datsko and V. Zelentsov, "Kinetics and mechanism of methylene blue adsorption by a TiO2/diatomite nanocomposite and its components," Surface Engineering and Applied Electrochemistry, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 772-779, 2023.

[28]     S. Iftekhar, D. L. Ramasamy, V. Srivastava, M. B. Asif, and M. Sillanp??, "Understanding the factors affecting the adsorption of Lanthanum using different adsorbents: a critical review," Chemosphere, vol. 204, pp. 413-430, 2018.

[29]     M. Lomora, D. Shumate, A. A. Rahman, and A. Pandit, "Therapeutic applications of phytoplankton, with an emphasis on diatoms and coccolithophores," Advanced Therapeutics, vol. 2, no. 2, p. 1800099, 2019.

[30]     E.-S. M. Duraia, M. Burkitbaev, H. Mohamedbakr, Z. Mansurov, S. Tokmolden, and G. W. Beall, "Growth of carbon nanotubes on diatomite," Vacuum, vol. 84, no. 4, pp. 464-468, 2009.

[31]     E. S. Appiah et al., "A review on progress and prospects of diatomaceous earth as a bio-template material for electrochemical energy storage: synthesis, characterization, and applications," Ionics, vol. 30, no. 12, pp. 7809-7860, 2024.

[32]     W. Teng et al., "Biotemplating preparation of N, O-codoped hierarchically porous carbon for high-performance supercapacitors," Applied Surface Science, vol. 566, p. 150613, 2021.

[33]     L. Ma, H. Xu, Q. Xie, N. Chen, Q. Yu, and C. Li, "Mechanism of As (V) adsorption from aqueous solution by chitosan-modified diatomite adsorbent," Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, vol. 43, no. 10, pp. 1512-1524, 2022.

[34]     M. Hua, S. Zhang, B. Pan, W. Zhang, L. Lv, and Q. Zhang, "Heavy metal removal from water/wastewater by nanosized metal oxides: a review," Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 211, pp. 317-331, 2012.

[35]     M. L. Pantoja, H. Jones, H. Garelick, H. G. Mohamedbakr, and M. Burkitbayev, "The removal of arsenate from water using iron-modified diatomite (D-Fe): isotherm and column experiments," Environmental science and pollution research, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 495-506 %@ 0944-1344, 2014.

[36]     A. Detho et al., "Comparison study of COD and ammoniacal nitrogen adsorption on activated coconut shell carbon, green mussel (Perna viridis), zeolite and composite material in stabilized landfill leachate treatment," Desalination And Water Treatment, vol. 220, pp. 101-108, 2021.

[37]     J. Ji et al., "Design and preparation of bio-based acoustic/flame-retardant/self-insulating resin foams," Journal of Building Engineering, p. 114176, 2025.

[38]     R. Cherrak, M. Hadjel, and N. Benderdouche, "Heterogenous photocatalysis treatement of azo dye methyl Orange by nano composite TiO2/diatomite," Oriental Journal of Chemistry, vol. 31, no. 3, p. 1611, 2015.

[39]     Y. Huang et al., "Diatomite waste derived N-doped porous carbon for applications in the oxygen reduction reaction and supercapacitors," Nanoscale Advances, vol. 3, no. 13, pp. 3860-3866, 2021.

[40]     F. Di et al., "Coral-like porous composite material of silicon and carbon synthesized by using diatomite as self-template and precursor with a good performance as anode of lithium-ions battery," Journal of Alloys and Compounds, vol. 854, p. 157253, 2021.

[41]     Y. El Miski, O. Zine, M. Ameur, Y. Kharbouch, and D. Taoukil, "Diatomite as a Partial and Sustainable Cement Replacement: Chemical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties," Greenhouse Gases: Science and Technology, 2025.

[42]     Z. He, B. Wang, W. Chen, and H. Tao, "Mechanical property, volume stability and microstructure of lightweight engineered cementitious composites (LECC) containing high-volume diatomite," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 409, p. 133884, 2023.

[43]     D. Yoo et al., "Diatom Biosilica: A Useful Natural Material for Biomedical Engineering," Water, vol. 17, no. 16, p. 2373, 2025.

[44]     M. Ren, H. Zhao, and X. Gao, "Effect of modified diatomite based shape-stabilized phase change materials on multiphysics characteristics of thermal storage mortar," Energy, vol. 241, p. 122823, 2022.

[45]     S. Karaman, B. Oztoprak, and C. B. Sisman, "Usage possibilities of diatomite in the concrete production for agricultural buildings," Journal of basic & applied sciences, vol. 11, pp. 31-38, 2015.

[46]     B. M. Grommersch, J. Pant, S. P. Hopkins, M. J. Goudie, and H. Handa, "Biotemplated synthesis and characterization of mesoporous nitric oxide-releasing diatomaceous earth silica particles," ACS applied materials & interfaces, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 2291-2301, 2018.

[47]     P. Zhao et al., "Diatomite-based adsorbent decorated with Fe3O4 nanoparticles for the removal of hazardous metal ions," ACS Applied Nano Materials, vol. 6, no. 10, pp. 8958-8970, 2023.

[48]     Q. Li and Y. Zhou, "Brief history, preparation method, and biological application of mesoporous silica molecular sieves: a narrative review," Molecules, vol. 28, no. 5, p. 2013, 2023.

[49]     X.-Y. Yang, L.-H. Chen, Y. Li, J. C. Rooke, C. Sanchez, and B.-L. Su, "Hierarchically porous materials: synthesis strategies and structure design," Chemical Society Reviews, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 481-558, 2017.

[50]     M. P. Balci, R. Bayat, C. Karakurt, and F. Sen, "Development of environmentally friendly lightweight aerogel composites as sustainable building materials: high insulation performance and application potential," International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, pp. 1-14 %@ 1735-1472, 2025.

[51]     C. Alvarado, H. Alvarado-Quintana, and R. Siche, "Ceramic thermal insulator based on diatomite obtained by starch consolidation casting," Materials, vol. 16, no. 11, pp. 4028 %@ 1996-1944, 2023.

[52]     R. E. Nurlybayev et al., "ThermalInsulation Dry Construction Mixture Based on Diatomite," Coatings, vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 811 %@ 2079-6412, 2025.

[53]     J. Han and S. Liu, "Myristic acid-hybridized diatomite composite as a shape-stabilized phase change material for thermal energy storage," RSC advances, vol. 7, no. 36, pp. 22170-22177, 2017.

[54]     M. ?ach, E. Gli?ci?ska, A. Przybek, and K. Smoro?, "The Influence of Diatomite on the Sound Absorption Ability of Composites," Materials, vol. 17, no. 18, pp. 4590 %@ 1996-1944, 2024.

[55]     C. Li, M. Wang, B. Xie, H. Ma, and J. Chen, "Enhanced properties of diatomite-based composite phase change materials for thermal energy storage," Renewable Energy, vol. 147, pp. 265-274 %@ 0960-1481, 2020.

[56]     Y. Mu, M. Cui, S. Zhang, J. Zhao, C. Meng, and Q. Sun, "Comparison study between a series of new type functional diatomite on methane adsorption performance," Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, vol. 267, pp. 203-211, 2018.

[57]     I. Rea, M. Terracciano, and L. De Stefano, "Synthetic vs natural: Diatoms bioderived porous materials for the next generation of healthcare nanodevices," Advanced healthcare materials, vol. 6, no. 3, p. 1601125, 2017.

[58]     M. Hartmann, M. Thommes, and W. Schwieger, "Hierarchically?ordered zeolites: a critical assessment," Advanced Materials Interfaces, vol. 8, no. 4, p. 2001841, 2021.

[59]     W. Xiao et al., "Facile synthesis of highly porous metal oxides by mechanochemical nanocasting," Chemistry of Materials, vol. 30, no. 9, pp. 2924-2929, 2018.

[60]     E. Ajenifuja, A. P. Popoola, K. O. Oyedotun, and O. Popoola, "Microstructural and porosimetry analysis of Ag-TiO2 intercalated kaolin and diatomite as nanocomposite ceramic materials," Clay Minerals, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 665-674, 2018.

[61]     R. M. Aboelenin, N. A. Fathy, H. K. Farag, and M. A. Sherief, "Preparation, characterization and catalytic performance of mesoporous silicates derived from natural diatomite: comparative studies," Journal of Water Process Engineering, vol. 19, pp. 112-119, 2017.

[62]     M. Shenbagapushpam et al., "Carbon ratio controlled in-situ synthesis of ordered mesoporous hybrid silica/carbon materials via soft template method," Silicon, vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 7219-7234, 2022.

[63]     A. Reid, F. Buchanan, M. Julius, and P. Walsh, "A review on diatom biosilicification and their adaptive ability to uptake other metals into their frustules for potential application in bone repair," Journal of Materials Chemistry B, vol. 9, no. 34, pp. 6728-6737, 2021.

[64]     S. Hocaoglu, A. Mohamad Idris, I. Basturk, and R. Partal, "Preparation of TiO2-diatomite composites and photocatalytic degradation of dye wastewater," International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 20, no. 10, pp. 10887-10902, 2023.

[65]     S. Kang et al., "A descriptive review on the potential use of diatom biosilica as a powerful functional biomaterial: A natural drug delivery system," Pharmaceutics, vol. 16, no. 9, p. 1171, 2024.

[66]     K. H. Min, D. H. Kim, S. Youn, and S. P. Pack, "Biomimetic diatom biosilica and its potential for biomedical applications and prospects: A review," International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 25, no. 4, p. 2023, 2024.

[67]     G. Peng et al., "Facile fabrication of diatomite biosilica-based nasal drug delivery vehicle for enhanced treatment of allergic rhinitis," Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, vol. 234, p. 113715, 2024.

[68]     C. Vicente?Garcia, D. Vona, A. Flemma, S. R. Cicco, and G. M. Farinola, "Diatoms in Focus: Chemically Doped Biosilica for Customized Nanomaterials," ChemPlusChem, vol. 89, no. 12, p. e202400462, 2024.

[69]     F. Zobi, "Diatom biosilica in targeted drug delivery and biosensing applications: recent studies," in Micro, 2022, vol. 2, no. 2: MDPI, pp. 342-360.